China

Southern China did not exist where the Bronze Drums’ story began around 500 BCE and neither did Vietnam or other southern modern Nations meaning that, if archaeological findings are key, we must try to know their political early context to understand them. We are facing paradoxical situations in which bronze drums (TongGu in Chinese) were probably first produced and developed inside a mosaic of autonomous and obscure kingdoms fed by their river’ tributaries around the Red River Basin, not yet divided between China and Vietnam nations both claiming their paternity today... reasons, among others, to remain unassuming throughout...

In present-day Yunnan and Guangxi, the two principal Chinese ‘future-provinces’ involved, it so happened that a central power did not govern until 111 BCE, when Han dynasty invaded also the northern geographic area of present-day Indochina, and first Vietnam at the east before also a portion of Laos and Myanmar (Burma) in the west.

First described below are the (present) Yunnan discoveries from the end of BCE, and their succeeding (present) Guangxi and provinces around from the beginning of ce; even if links existed necessarily between these two entities also strongly connected via the Tonkin area in (present) north-Vietnam.

As a kind of prologue, guiding-marks could help us to better understand globally the environmental situation of these territories corresponding at that times to a kind of “hub” for south-Asian culture exchanges:

Seventy nine tombs where classified from the same cemetery with only one other similar drum (in no.1) after the no. 23 was found by chance by a peasant. That tomb was about ten meters under the earth, and measured six meters long and two meters high. A skeleton was inside a huge wood-coffin 2.6 meters long, containing 577 articles of different materials, mostly in bronze from bracelets to axes, with drums outside and apparently under the coffin.

Two characteristics are striking after the first (Chinese) analysis:

1. The apparent good conservation and the tomb’s age from the (radiocarboned) coffin-wood even if the large tree trunk could well have been older than the burial itself, suggesting at least a fifth century BCE date. Consequently most scholars, Vietnamese apart, agreed that these Wanjiaba drums, displayed in many museums now, were likely to be the oldest casted up before any Heger I and the first “drum craddle” known to today. Looking much more like a reversed kettle giving birth to a drum: progressively strengthened and properly decorated: a revolutionary scenario indeed.

2. Pending new data, the rustic Wanjiaba drums detailed below could be the prototype, not yet decorated first, of the bronze drums to be found all along the Red River Basin, Đông Sơn (Heger I) type included; an hypothesis not welcomed in Vietnam where Wanjiaba had been assimilated to late Heger IV type from the beginning of ce Measuring from D25 to 40 cm and H25 to 35 cm, Wanjiaba drums were dense like kettles, first without apparent handles and decoration, one small bulb in the tympan-center becoming soon a “star” on next items with handles. On the top and on the mantle soon existed relief lines or band of meanders or spirals or amphibian patterns with incised designs. They were rich in copper, up to 99%, an abundant ore in Yunnan even if no drum’s casting sites were found there up to now, with at least 1% tin.

Named Wanjiaba after their first place of discovery doesn’t mean that these drums were created in Chuxiong... others were found far away in Yunnan province. Their rustic aspects can match the idea of creation from pre-existing kettles instead of imitation of pre-existing wooden drums...becoming in fact a synthesis of both.

Wanjiaba and next rustic bronze drums (Fig. 3) opened the door to coming Dian ones, varying from Heger IV to Heger I types, wearing geometric and figurative decoration with fauna or flora, and figuring clearly a drum and no more a kettle.

Dianchi Lake, near Kunming, is famous for its vastness (40x10 km) on Dianzhong Plateau (alt 1800m). Via the nearby Lishe River it could be linked to Erhai lake (near Dali) in the north and, via the southern Yuanjiang (Red River) Valley to Bac Bao. That central situation, between the equestrian cultures in the north and the rice field cultures in the south, probably corresponded to wealthy kingdoms harboring the oldest local bronze drums productions. Of which Shizhaishan hill on the Dianchi Lake with some twenty tombs discovered around 1960, was the cemetery of the Kingdom of Dian before the Western Han colonisation. Also-known as Barbarian by the Han, the Dian civilisation of farmer-stock- breeders was in fact very sophisticated as seen on their bronzes including cowry-container and drums illustrating the importance of livestock (horses/cattle), the nice forms of habitat and dress, the war customs, an aristocratic taste for adornment, an entirely animal repertory both symbolic and decorative, a feeling for combinations of geometric patterns too.

We do not yet know the origin or the pre-mature stage of this culture apart from its ‘steppic’ influences. It was certainly very complex combining agricultural and metalworking techniques and the exact spread of the Dian civilization remains difficult to delineate. May be existed at the end of the first millennium BCE a sort of “Red River cultural confederation” comprising at least two hubs: near Shizaishan (in future south Chinese Yunnan) and Đông Sơn (in future northern Vietnamese Tonkin), an hypothesis corroborated by the presence of bronze drums from both origins in both centres. At their pinnacle these cultures probably suffered under the impact of the coming Iron Age and colonization of northern Chinese Han which apparently stopped their production of bronze drums after the first century ce, Guangxi taking strongly the baton.

In the Shizaishan Dian Royal tombs, as in Lijaisan or other famous necropolis of the province, basically three types of “kettles” bronze artefacts were found:

(a) So called bronze cowry-container (of which cowrie-shells) the most spectacular and original not found elsewhere. Even if not drums basically, because impossible to play, these containers “set the tone” of Dian’s civilization; meaning that we must look at them briefly before turning our attention to the drums themselves.
(b) Local (Heger I) bronze drums at least casted in three pieces–one for the tympan and another bivalve for the mantle–like the cowry-containers with which they shared part of their decoration from a common equestrian and hills origin inspiration.
(c) Đông Sơn bronze drums (Heger I) coming from the south of the Red River Valley (future northern Vietnam) wearing slightly different decorations in accordance with their more tropical sources.

In the huge new Yunnan province museum (YPM) in Kunming was made a suggestive presentation of early drums and kettles giving a good idea of their similarity and probable relation at the verge of Spring and Autumn and Warring States (475-221 BCE) periods (Fig. 4)

(a) Cowrie shell containers from Yunnan (Shizhaishan; Lijiashan; Tianzimiao etc.)

From about one hundred cowrie containers recorded, 40% are in the form of a barrel, 40% in the form of a drum (even if not playable due to figurines on top), the others are in between. Generally they would permit the protection of valuables put inside, often cowrie shells, shells being one of the most precious items at that time. In brief, they are composed of a cover with high-relief humans or animals casted apart and a body with often three to five small supporting legs and lateral handles, either tiger-shaped or not. Advanced casting techniques were necessary from basic clay to piece-molds; the handles, openwork plaques, sculptures on the top, being made apart. The results were gorgeous and remain unique in mankind story (Fig. 5).

Symbols of wealth, only found in royal or elite tombs, cowrie containers probably came from kettles. From the Warring States period they helped to improve drums’ casting and decoration with animal or human sculptures or designs. Some drums were transformed in cowry containers with figurines added on top but also existed double pieced drum container (Fig. 6). In total a wide bronze family but only the pure drums were musical instruments and largely spread, and therefore must be distinctly considered.

(b) Bronze drums from Dian royal tombs

From Shizhaishan burials, bronze drums appeared in different ways:

1. Either lined up or piled up they are basically musical instrument and sign of power, attested sometimes by a sculpted figure beating a drum with a mallet. The peaceful or warlike sceneries shown on the bronzes of Dian, were linked to agricultural works, and funeral rites.
2. Insignia of power and prestige reserved for the elite and probably magically-endowed, bronze drum, designs are both as a testimony of present life and other worlds.

It would be risky to state more dividing lines that our fragmentary knowledge can lead us to imagine. At least are demonstrated the bronze levels of beauty and complexity from the third century BCE in Yunnan. 

Dian tomb drum (Fig. 7) wore a central star (10 rays here) with a large band of big birds on the tympan encircled with geometric bands (no frogs) and a large rank of riverboats with rowing people on the mantle between geometric bands. Four handles but nothing sculpted on the pedestal (Warring States period/475-221 BCE).

Drums that were unearthed in Shizaishan (Jinning county) are regarded as the standard samples of the Dian type (Heger I), often similar to Southern Đông Sơn (Yue) type meaning probably a lot of interchanges: the convex superior part of the mantle is also larger than the tympanum but the foot base is smaller and relatively high. Most of the drum’s decorative patterns are realistically done: the main band on the top had flying birds like egrets; the main band on the chest is decorated with some people rowing boats; bands are often striped with vertical lines which were further divided into rectangles decorated with pictures of panels, plaques or cartouches; but never showed, on the contrary of Đông Sơn ones, people adorned with feathers. On some were oxen or was depicted an ox-killing ceremony, another sported a stag or a tiger probably originating from steppes backgrounds... No frogs during the first period but they appear progressively from the early Warring States through the beginning of the East Han dynasty beginning ce, a period lasting about 500 years in total. 

A selection of the Guangxi documented drums, not far short of one thousand in total with always new discoveries, can be seen in Nanning’s huge new Guangxi Nationalities Museum or in the old City Museum. The Chinese had named too many categories after the place they had been discovered; the most numerous are, in order, called Majiang; Beiliu; Lengshuichong, the last name often being given to all Guangxi drums types by Westerners due to over-simplification. The Vietnamese distinguished them differently under their own “Đông Sơn umbrella” classification but, grosso modo, the Heger I type equals the Lengshuichong (as also the Shizhaishan in Yunnan); the Heger II equals the Beiliu (and Lingshan) types; the Heger IV equals the Majiang (and Zuny) types; and Ximeng (minority) items are not far from Heger III.

Astonishingly, compared with the great number of recorded drums, no big centres of production were discovered until now in Guangxi where all the necessary ores existed to produce them. The welcoming Professor Li Fuqiang (Guangxi University for Nationalities- Nanning) is working with an open-minded team to fill this gap and also to evaluate other existing bronze drums abroad, related or not to the Guangxi productions through the ages.

Note: Very few drums of the Shizhaisan type were found in Guangxi, no Wanjiaba up to now. On the contrary the drum’s relations between Guangxi and Tonkin were probably stronger, the Heger II types being largely spread. It was, and it remains, much more easy to travel by earth from Nanning to Hanoï than to Kunming, much less kilometers and hills.

a) Majiang drums (Heger IV typed)

Named after a drum unearthed in a tomb in Guidong railway station (Majian County), its shaped characteristics are generally small and flat. The diameter of the slightly extended tympan is smaller than the chest divided into two parts by a protruding edge. Most of the drums bore pictures of animals, plants, people and houses; during ce the main pattern is a waving flag with some animal or ancient character symbols, for example there are some titles or dates from the emperors, or some words for good luck. The distribution of this type is very wide (about 300 were documented); its typical frame with inscriptions began with the south Song dynasty and encompassed Ming and last Qing dynasties, continuing occasionally to be used by Zhang, Miao, Yi and few other nationalities.

b) Beiliu drums (Heger II typed)

The large diameter of their tympanum measures from 50 to 165 cm (average 70 to 100 cm) and the shape of their bodies is thick and heavy.

Their faces were larger than their chests, slightly convex as the waist appeared concave with two pairs of circular handles attached. Four (or six) frogs or other high-relief animals stand on the tympan with a protruding central star, often with eight rays. A Beiiliu type drum is divided into bands by fine circular lines on the tympan and the body, decorated with different patterns, geometric or not. Less than two hundred Beiliu are documented, cast mainly from the Western Han to the Tang dynasty (206-907 ce) and principally used by Wuhu and Li peoples. The biggest of all the northern drums was encountered near Beiliu (D165 cm, 130 kg, Fig. 15)

Interestingly, Beilliu and Lengshuichong types are presented conjointly (Fig. 10) in Nanning (GNM) from Eastern Han and Southern dynasties (220-589 ce). Respectively, at right Beiliu/Heger II type (93D/H53 cm) with in-relief frog; at left Lengshuichong/ Heger I type (83D/H60 cm), with in-relief frogs and horses and stars in both cases.

(c) Lengshuichong type (Heger I typed

Named after a village in Tengxian County their shape is high and large, relatively thin and light. The highest diameter of the chest often exceed that on the tympanum covered with frog figurines (generally four) with horses, riders, oxen, ducks, tortoises, birds, fishes in between etc. The main patterns are bands of egrets or boats or dancers figures with bird feathers on the tympanum and mantle. On some of them horses with their rider might replace the traditional frogs, a reminiscence of steppes influences and maybe the “mountain spirit” represented by the “golden horse” so well depicted on Dian bronze containers. More than one hundred Lengshuichong (Heger I typed) were recorded, probably made before Beiliu from the Easter Han through to at least the Song dynasties. (Figs. 10-11)

Note: All Guangxi drums above are not far from their older counterparts even if boats formats or other motives or geometric patterns can vary. But the main difference is that they continued to be nicely developed long after the disappearance of the Dian and Đông Sơn drum cultures; they were also sent to all (future) Indochina and in southern Archipelagos. Any strange practices, not fully explained until now, are shown in some burials in Xiling (west Guangxi province) where many drums were cut and assembled in “Russian- doll- like- fashion” mixing Đông Sơn and Guangxi drum types. In Vietnam only some mountainous ethnics people like Mường continued to use drums, Heger II principally.

A GNM masterpiece (Fig. 11) wore three types of in-relief animals (frogs, horses, dogs) associated on the tympanum covered with a twelve rays star. Other originality, the presence of two double perforated ankles added with two small ones covering fully the mantle. It must be admired the beautiful results during a long period as demonstrated (Fig. 12) by a comparison between drums from successive Song and Ming and Qing dynasties.

During near two thousand years Guangxi people was able to find customers (in China and abroad) and to maintain a good level of casting using apparently the same basic techniques first developed by Dian and Đông Sơn. For the very big pieces, as shown in GNM, five moulds were utilized, four for the mantle and one for the tympan, the in-reliefs decoration on the top being casted separately, piece by piece and added.

Last masterpiece to be seen in Nanning City Museum: a big drum (D80/H50 cm) from possibly the last Eastern Han dynasty (before 320 ce) featured the best of early Guangxi Lengshuichong production. Four big toad figurines (one missing) on the tympan are incorporated with charming groups of three small mice bearing a baby on their back. A central twelve ray’s “star” is surrounded with rows of big birds and dancing people and geometric circles and designs. The same decorations are repeated on the mantle with six pierced handles (two missing). Despite small failures, a supremely elegant piece with nice imaginative characters. (Fig. 13)

On a wall of the same Nanning City Museum were reproduced primitive paintings on which figure people (dancers? warriors?) with (possibly) encircled bronze drums. (Fig. 14)

A.J. Bernet Kempers noted fifty years ago how the Woni of southern Yunnan, during festival rituals “beat drums until recently”... “They stick pheasant tails on their heads to dance, they are called those who disperse the spirits”... “It is possible that the drum scenes represent funeral rites, in which context the herons would symbolise longevity and the boat may be carrying away the dead spirits; but many alternative are possible, may be witnessing fertility ceremonies at the onset of the rains, or celebrations of victory in combat”...”the plaques (with scenes) on the bronze drums have been interpreted as armor or as purely decorative devices”.

Nowadays only survive ceremonies seem to less correspond to believers’ necessities than to reminiscences of bronze drums’ habits, if not pure nostalgia or folklore. Of which the seasonal festivals of “Barbarian Nationalities” (Yi, Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Miao or Mường, etc.) in some southern China places including the “Guangxi drums’ festival”.

New perspectives had recently emerged, sometimes at University levels, with the creation of specific orchestras including bronze drums for part or in totality, with DVD or CD production output, in China first and sometimes overseas as in... U.S.A.! (Fig. 16)